Persistent drought, climate volatility and population growth are forcing communities to rethink where their water comes from. As traditional sources such as rivers, snowpack and groundwater become less reliable, direct potable reuse (DPR) is emerging as one of the most dependable solutions. The technology is proven, regulations are advancing and more communities are exploring its potential. Yet one challenge remains: public perception.

Potable reuse — which includes both indirect potable reuse (IPR) and direct potable reuse (DPR) — has emerged as a climate‑resilient, locally controlled water supply solution.

"Both direct and indirect potable reuse rely on advanced treatment technologies that produce water meeting or exceeding drinking water standards. The difference is where that purified water goes next,” says Kevin Goetz, a construction manager with PCL Construction. Indirect potable reuse (IPR) routes water through an environmental buffer, such as a reservoir or aquifer, before it enters the drinking water system. DPR eliminates that intermediate step, delivering purified water directly into the drinking water system after multiple treatment barriers.

As more states establish regulatory frameworks for DPR, the conversation is shifting from whether the technology works to whether communities are ready to embrace it.

These advanced water treatments have been used across the globe since the 1960s to help communities adapt to water scarcity, but messaging derailed its adoption in the United States. Public perception is beginning to change, though. El Paso, Texas, is on track to become the first U.S. city to deliver DPR water directly to residents’ taps, signaling growing confidence in the technology, which wasn’t always the case. For decades, potable reuse projects faced public skepticism fueled by the phrase “toilet-to-tap,” a label that oversimplified the science and overshadowed the rigorous treatment processes behind potable reuse.

“Toilet-to-tap” was amplified by political campaigns, media coverage and public skepticism, reducing a complex, highly engineered process into something simplistic, visceral and emotionally charged. In many cases, that framing proved more influential than the underlying science.

“The early wave of potable reuse projects in the 1990s collapsed under the weight of public fear and political pressure,” says Sara Katz, partner and strategic advisor at Bodewell Group, a communications firm with experience handling potable water reuse projects. “The technology was there, but the narrative got ahead of the industry. ‘Toilet-to-tap’ became shorthand for risk and distrust.” Within a short window, projects in San Diego, Tampa, Los Angeles and Upper San Gabriel Valley were canceled or indefinitely delayed.

Those experiences demonstrated that the greatest barriers to potable reuse weren’t technological. More often than not, resistance stemmed from public trust and understanding.

“There isn’t a potable water reuse project that I’m aware of that has been derailed due to technology or regulations. It’s all been about the politics, the people, the pundits and the press,” says Katz. 

The technology behind direct potable reuse has been proven for decades. Prompted by severe drought, water scarcity and population demands, the world’s first large-scale potable reuse facility began operating in Windhoek, Namibia in 1968 and now supplies up to 25% of the city's drinking water. That system, which treats wastewater to drinking water standards and delivers it directly to the municipal supply, has operated safely for decades and remains a global benchmark for potable reuse.

Similar potable reuse programs now operate around the world, including Singapore’s NEWater system and Europe's first direct potable reuse facility in Belgium. Their growing adoption reflects a broader shift in how communities view potable reuse. Rather than being treated solely as an emergency measure, these programs are increasingly being incorporated into long-term water supply strategies. Through public outreach, clear terminology and transparent performance reporting, they have built familiarity and trust, demonstrating that confidence in water reuse can grow when people see the technology operate safely and reliably over time.

Thirty years on from those shelved projects, potable reuse is making a comeback in the United States. In early 2025, El Paso Water, PCL Construction and partner Carollo Engineers broke ground on the El Paso Water Pure Water Center, the nation’s first direct‑to‑distribution potable reuse facility, designed to deliver up to 10 million gallons of purified drinking water per day directly into the city’s system. The project followed more than a decade of planning, testing and regulatory collaboration, and it has strong community and political support.

Public engagement has become as important to modern potable reuse projects as the treatment technology itself. The Pure Water Center includes a dedicated public education facility that will feature interactive exhibits explaining the treatment process, viewing areas to observe the purification stage, and opportunities to sample purified water.

Unlike projects from the 1990s, the Pure Water Center is positioned as a long‑term solution for water resilience in a desert city. Once complete, the facility will diversify El Paso’s water supply, help meet peak summer demand and reduce groundwater pumping, preserving local aquifers.

El Paso is not alone. Cities such as San Diego and Phoenix, as well as communities across California, are advancing Pure Water programs that integrate potable reuse into broader water supply portfolios. San Diego’s Pure Water Program is designed to provide up to half the city’s water supply locally by 2035, reducing reliance on imported sources like the Colorado River and Northern California Bay Delta while increasing drought resilience.

Collectively, these programs signal a shift from isolated pilot projects to mainstream adoption, supported by evolving regulations and growing public familiarity.

After decades of debate, direct potable reuse is entering a new chapter. The science is proven, the infrastructure is deliverable and real‑world examples have shown success. As water scarcity becomes a defining constraint, the question for most communities is no longer whether direct potable reuse is acceptable, but whether communities can afford not to use it.